Methods of International Trade Payment
There are several basic methods of
receiving payment for products sold abroad. As with domestic sales,
a major factor that determines the method of payment is the amount
of trust in the buyer's ability and willingness to pay. For sales
within our country, if the buyer has good credit, sales are usually
made on open account; if not, cash in advance is required. For
export sales, these same methods may be used; however, other methods
are also often used in international trade. Ranked in order from
most secure for the exporter to least secure, the basic methods of
payment are:
cash in advance,
letter of credit,
documentary collection or draft,
open account, and
other payment mechanisms, such as consignment sales
Since getting paid in full and on time is of utmost concern to
exporters, risk is a major consideration. Many factors make
exporting riskier than domestic sales. However, there are also
several methods of reducing risks. One of the most important factors
in reducing risks is to know what risks exist. For that reason,
exporters are advised to consult an international banker to
determine an acceptable method of payment for each specific
transaction.
Cash in advance
Cash in advance before shipment may seem to be the most desirable
method of all, since the shipper is relieved of collection problems
and has immediate use of the money if a wire transfer is used.
Payment by check, even before shipment, may result in a collection
delay of four to six weeks and therefore frustrate the original
intention of payment before shipment. On the other hand, advance
payment creates cash flow problems and increases risks for the
buyer. Thus, cash in advance lacks competitiveness; the buyer may
refuse to pay until the merchandise is received.
Documentary letter of credit and drafts
The buyer may be concerned that the goods may not be sent if the
payment is made in advance. To protect the interests of both buyer
and seller, documentary letters of credit or drafts are often used.
Under these two methods, documents are required to be presented
before payment is made. Both letters of credit and drafts may be
paid immediately, at sight, or at a later date. Drafts that are to
be paid when presented for payment are called sight drafts. Drafts
that are to be paid at a later date, which is often after the buyer
receives the goods, are called time drafts or date drafts.
Since payment under these two methods is made on the basis of
documents, all terms of sale should be clearly specified. For
example, "net 30 days" should be specified as "net 30 days from
acceptance" or "net 30 days from date of bill of lading" to avoid
confusion and delay of payment. Likewise, the currency of payment
should be specified as "US$XXX" if payment is to be made in U.S.
dollars. International bankers can offer other suggestions to help.
Banks charge fees - usually a small percentage of the amount of
payment - for handling letters of credit and less for handling
drafts. If fees charged by both the foreign and local banks for
their collection services are to be charged to the account of the
buyer, this point should be explicitly stated in all quotations and
on all drafts.
The exporter usually expects the buyer to pay the charges for the
letter of credit, but some buyers may not accept terms that require
this added cost. In such cases the exporter must either absorb the
letter of credit costs or lose that potential sale.
Letters of credit
A letter of credit adds a bank's promise of paying the exporter to
that of the foreign buyer when the exporter has complied with all
the terms and conditions of the letter of credit. The foreign buyer
applies for issuance of a letter of credit to the exporter and
therefore is called the applicant; the exporter is called the
beneficiary.
Payment under a documentary letter of credit is based on documents,
not on the terms of sale or the condition of the goods sold. Before
payment, the bank responsible for making payment verifies that all
documents are exactly as required by the letter of credit. When they
are not as required, a discrepancy exists, which must be cured
before payment can be made. Thus, the full compliance of documents
with those specified in the letter of credit is mandatory.
Often a letter of credit issued by a foreign bank is confirmed by a
local bank. This means that the local bank, which is the confirming
bank, adds its promise to pay to that of the foreign, or issuing,
bank. Letters of credit that are not confirmed are advised through a
local bank and are called advised letters of credit. Exporters may
wish to confirm letters of credit issued by foreign banks not only
because they are unfamiliar with the credit risk of the foreign bank
but also because there may be concern about the political or
economic risk associated with the country in which the bank is
located. An international banker can help exporters evaluate these
risks to determine what might be appropriate for each specific
export transaction.
A letter of credit may be either irrevocable (that is, it cannot be
changed unless both the buyer and the seller agree to make the
change) or revocable (that is, either party may unilaterally make
changes). A revocable letter of credit is inadvisable. A letter of
credit may be at sight, which means immediate payment upon
presentation of documents, or it may be a time or date letter of
credit with payment to be made in the future. See the "Drafts"
section of this chapter.
Any change made to a letter of credit after it has been issued is
called an amendment. The fees charged by the banks involved in
amending the letter of credit may be paid by either the exporter or
the foreign buyer, but who is to pay which charges should be
specified in the letter of credit. Since changes can be
time-consuming and expensive, every effort should be made to get the
letter of credit right the first time.
An exporter is usually not paid until the advising or confirming
bank receives the funds from the issuing bank. To expedite the
receipt of funds, wire transfers may be used. Bank practices vary,
however, and the exporter may be able to receive funds by
discounting the letter of credit at the bank, which involves paying
a fee to the bank for this service. Exporters should consult with
their international bankers about bank policy.
A Typical Letter of Credit Transaction
Here is what typically happens when payment is made by an
irrevocable letter of credit confirmed by a local bank:
After the exporter and customer agree on the terms of a sale, the
customer arranges for its bank to open a letter of credit. (Delays
may be encountered if, for example, the buyer has insufficient
funds.)
The buyer's bank prepares an irrevocable letter of credit, including
all instructions to the seller concerning the shipment.
The buyer's bank sends the irrevocable letter of credit to a local
bank, requesting confirmation. The exporter may request that a
particular bank be the confirming bank, or the foreign bank selects
one of its local correspondent banks.
The local bank prepares a letter of confirmation to forward to the
exporter along with the irrevocable letter of credit.
The exporter reviews carefully all conditions in the letter of
credit. The exporter's freight forwarder should be contacted to make
sure that the shipping date can be met. If the exporter cannot
comply with one or more of the conditions, the customer should be
alerted at once.
The exporter arranges with the freight forwarder to deliver the
goods to the appropriate port or airport.
When the goods are loaded, the forwarder completes the necessary
documents.
The exporter (or the forwarder) presents to the local bank documents
indicating full compliance.
The bank reviews the documents. If they are in order, the documents
are airmailed to the buyer's bank for review and transmitted to the
buyer.
The buyer (or agent) gets the documents that may be needed to claim
the goods.
A draft, which may accompany the letter of credit, is paid by the
exporter's bank at the time specified or may be discounted at an
earlier date.
Tips on Using a Letter of Credit
When preparing quotations for prospective customers, exporters
should keep in mind that banks pay only the amount specified in the
letter of credit - even if higher charges for shipping, insurance,
or other factors are documented.
Upon receiving a letter of credit, the exporter should carefully
compare the letter's terms with the terms of the exporter's pro
forma quotation. This point is extremely important, since the terms
must be precisely met or the letter of credit may be invalid and the
exporter may not be paid. If meeting the terms of the letter of
credit is impossible or any of the information is incorrect or
misspelled, the exporter should get in touch with the customer
immediately and ask for an amendment to the letter of credit to
correct the problem.
The exporter must provide documentation showing that the goods were
shipped by the date specified in the letter of credit or the
exporter may not be paid. Exporters should check with their freight
forwarders to make sure that no unusual conditions may arise that
would delay shipment. Similarly, documents must be presented by the
date specified for the letter of credit to be paid. Exporters should
verify with their international bankers that sufficient time will be
available for timely presentation.
Exporters should always request that the letter of credit specify
that partial shipments and transshipment will be allowed. Doing so
prevents unforeseen problems at the last minute.
Drafts
A draft, sometimes also called a bill of exchange, is analogous to a
foreign buyer's check. Like checks used in domestic commerce, drafts
sometimes carry the risk that they will be dishonored.
Sight Drafts
A sight draft is used when the seller wishes to retain title to the
shipment until it reaches its destination and is paid for. Before
the cargo can be released, the original ocean bill of lading must be
properly endorsed by the buyer and surrendered to the carrier, since
it is a document that evidences title.
Air waybills of lading, on the other hand, do not need to be
presented in order for the buyer to claim the goods. Hence, there is
a greater risk when a sight draft is being used with an air
shipment.
In actual practice, the bill of lading or air waybill is endorsed by
the shipper and sent via the shipper's bank to the buyer's bank or
to another intermediary along with a sight draft, invoices, and
other supporting documents specified by either the buyer or the
buyer's country (e.g., packing lists, consular invoices, insurance
certificates). The bank notifies the buyer when it has received
these documents; as soon as the amount of the draft is paid, the
bank releases the bill of lading, enabling the buyer to obtain the
shipment.
When a sight draft is being used to control the transfer of title of
a shipment, some risk remains because the buyer's ability or
willingness to pay may change between the time the goods are shipped
and the time the drafts are presented for payment. Also, the
policies of the importing country may change. If the buyer cannot or
will not pay for and claim the goods, then returning or disposing of
them becomes the problem of the exporter.
Exporters should also consider which foreign bank should negotiate
the sight draft for payment. If the negotiating bank is also the
buyer's bank, the bank may favor its customer's position, thereby
putting the exporter at a disadvantage. Exporters should consult
their international bankers to determine an appropriate strategy for
negotiating drafts.
Time Drafts and Date Drafts
If the exporter wants to extend credit to the buyer, a time draft
can be used to state that payment is due within a certain time after
the buyer accepts the draft and receives the goods, for example, 30
days after acceptance. By signing and writing "accepted" on the
draft, the buyer is formally obligated to pay within the stated
time. When this is done the draft is called a trade acceptance and
can be either kept by the exporter until maturity or sold to a bank
at a discount for immediate payment.
A date draft differs slightly from a time draft in that it specifies
a date on which payment is due, for example, December 1, XXXX,
rather than a time period after the draft is accepted. When a sight
draft or time draft is used, a buyer can delay payment by delaying
acceptance of the draft. A date draft can prevent this delay in
payment but still must be accepted.
When a bank accepts a draft, it becomes an obligation of the bank
and a negotiable investment known as a banker's acceptance is
created. A banker's acceptance can also be sold to a bank at a
discount for immediate payment.
Credit cards
Many exporters of consumer and other products (generally of low
value) that are sold directly to the end user accept Visa and
MasterCard in payment for export sales.
International credit card transactions are typically placed by
telephone or fax, methods that facilitate fraudulent transactions.
Merchants should determine the validity of transactions and obtain
proper authorizations.
Open account
In a foreign transaction, an open account is a convenient method of
payment and may be satisfactory if the buyer is well established,
has demonstrated a long and favorable payment record, or has been
thoroughly checked for creditworthiness. Under open account, the
exporter simply bills the customer, who is expected to pay under
agreed terms at a future date. Some of the largest firms abroad make
purchases only on open account.
Open account sales do pose risks, however. The absence of documents
and banking channels may make legal enforcement of claims difficult
to pursue. The exporter may have to pursue collection abroad, which
can be difficult and costly. Also, receivables may be harder to
finance, since drafts or other evidence of indebtedness are
unavailable.
Before issuing a pro forma invoice to a buyer, exporters
contemplating a sale on open account terms should thoroughly examine
the political, economic, and commercial risks and consult with their
bankers if financing will be needed for the transaction.
Other payment mechanisms
Consignment sales
In international consignment sales, the same basic procedure is
followed as in the local market. The material is shipped to a
foreign distributor to be sold on behalf of the exporter. The
exporter retains title to the goods until they are sold by the
distributor. Once the goods are sold, payment is sent to the
exporter. With this method, the exporter has the greatest risk and
least control over the goods and may have to wait quite a while to
get paid.
When this type of sale is contemplated, it may be wise to consider
some form of risk insurance. In addition, it may be necessary to
conduct a credit check on the foreign distributor. Furthermore, the
contract should establish who is responsible for property risk
insurance covering merchandise until it is sold and payment
received.
Foreign currency
A buyer and a seller in different countries rarely use the same
currency. Payment is usually made in either the buyer's or the
seller's currency or in a mutually agreed-on currency that is
foreign to both parties.
One of the uncertainties of foreign trade is the uncertainty of the
future exchange rates between currencies. The relative value between
the local currency and the buyer's currency may change between the
time the deal is made and the time payment is received. If the
exporter is not properly protected, a devaluation in the foreign
currency could cause the exporter to lose money in the transaction.
One of the simplest ways for an exporter to avoid this type of risk
is to quote prices and require payment in local currency. Then the
burden and risk are placed on the buyer to make the currency
exchange. Exporters should also be aware of problems of currency
convertibility; not all currencies are freely or quickly convertible
into local currency.
If the buyer asks to make payment in a foreign currency, the
exporter should consult an international banker before negotiating
the sales contract. Banks can offer advice on the foreign exchange
risks that exist; further, some international banks can help one
hedge against such a risk if necessary, by agreeing to purchase the
foreign currency at a fixed price regardless of the value of the
currency when the customer pays. The bank charges a fee or discount
on the transaction. If this mechanism is used, the fee should be
included in the price quotation.
Countertrade and barter
International countertrade is a trade practice whereby a supplier
commits contractually, as a condition of sale, to undertake
specified initiatives that compensate and benefit the other party.
The resulting
linked trade fulfills financial (e.g., lack of foreign exchange),
marketing, or public policy objectives of the trading parties. Not
all suppliers consider countertrade an objectionable imposition;
many exporters consider countertrade a necessary cost of doing
business in markets where exports would otherwise not occur.
Simple barter is the direct exchange of goods or services between
two parties; no money changes hands. Pure barter arrangements in
international commerce are rare, because the parties' needs for the
goods of the other seldom coincide and because valuation of the
goods may pose problems. The most common form of compensatory trade
practiced today involves contractually linked, parallel trade
transactions each of which involves a separate financial settlement.
For example, a countertrade contract may provide that the exporter
will be paid in a convertible currency as long as the exporter (or
another entity designated by the exporter) agrees to export a
related quantity of goods from the importing country.
Exporters can take advantage of countertrade opportunities by
trading through an intermediary with countertrade expertise, such as
an international broker, an international bank, or an export
management company. Some export management companies offer
specialized countertrade services. Exporters should bear in mind
that countertrade often involves higher transaction costs and
greater risks than simple export transactions.
Decreasing credit risks through credit checks
Generally, it is a good idea to check a buyer's credit even if
credit risk insurance or relatively safe payment methods are
employed. Banks are often able to provide credit reports on foreign
companies, either through their own foreign branches or through a
correspondent bank.
Private credit reporting services also are available. Several
services compile financial information on foreign firms
(particularly larger firms) and make it available to subscribers.
Reliable evaluations can also be obtained from foreign credit
reporting services, many of which are listed in The Exporter's Guide
to Foreign Sources for Credit Information, published by Trade Data
Reports, Inc., 6 West 37th Street, New York, NY 10018.
Collection Problems
In international trade, problems involving bad debts are more easily
avoided than rectified after they occur. Credit checks and the other
methods that have been discussed can limit the risks involved.
Nonetheless, just as in a company's domestic business, exporters
occasionally encounter problems with buyers who default on payments.
When these problems occur in international trade, obtaining payment
can be both difficult and expensive. Even when the exporter has
insurance to cover commercial credit risks, a default by a buyer
still requires time, effort, and cost. The exporter must exhaust all
reasonable means of obtaining payment before an insurance claim is
honored, and there is often a significant delay before the insurance
payment is made.
The simplest (and least costly) solution to a payment problem is to
contact and negotiate with the customer. With patience,
understanding, and flexibility, an exporter can often resolve
conflicts to the satisfaction of both sides.
This point is especially true when a simple misunderstanding or
technical problem is to blame and there is no question of bad faith.
Even though the exporter may be required to compromise on certain
points - perhaps even on the price of the committed goods - the
company may save a valuable customer and profit in the long run.
If, however, negotiations fail and the sum involved is large enough
to warrant the effort, a company should obtain the assistance and
advice of its bank, legal counsel, and other qualified experts. If
both parties can agree to take their dispute to an arbitration
agency, this step is preferable to legal action, since arbitration
is often faster and less costly. The International Chamber of
Commerce handles the majority of international arbitrations and is
usually acceptable to foreign companies because it is not affiliated
with any single country.
Republished from zeromillion